Environment and Natural Resources Journal

A Comprehensive Carbon Footprint Analysis and Emission Reduction in Wastewater Treatment Plants: A Case Study in Pattaya City

Woraphot Phongphalee — 2025-05-16

This study analyzes the contributions of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) at Pattaya City to the areas of Naklua, Pattaya City, and Jomtien. This analysis was carried out 2021-2023 by visiting the sites, interviewing plant managers, filling out scientifically designed questionnaires and by processing the data obtained using computational methods developed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. It was found that the total carbon footprint (CF) from both the Pattaya City and Jomtien WWTPs had the potential to contribute 5,610.61-6,020.18 tCO₂eq/year and that carbon intensity ranged between 0.45-0.47 kg CO₂eq/m³ in treated wastewater. The study found that the main sources of emissions were the wastewater collection system (34.47-44.61%), activated sludge process (43.02-45.74%), and electricity consumption (30.02-39.48%). Therefore, the study suggests three options for GHG reduction. Installing solar cells on the office building roof could generate 156,780 kWh annually, resulting in a reduction of CO₂ emissions by 108.70 tCO₂eq/year, and a savings of 35,658.52 USD. This is equivalent to a 2.38% reduction in the WWTP’s GHG emissions. Installing solar cells in the plant could also generate 823,680 kWh annually, leading to a reduction in GHG emissions of 571.06 tCO₂eq/year, or 12.50%, and a savings of 187,304.58 USD. Installing a WWTP at station PS12 with a capacity of 60,874.65 m³/day could also reduce the GHG footprint from the wastewater collection system by 1,219.44 tCO₂eq/year, or 36.41%, and result in a savings of 239,091.57 USD. To reach carbon neutrality and energy sustainability, the approaches for resource recovery, nutrient recycling, water reuse, and energy production on-site with combined heat and power (CHP) from biogas should be investigated in the future.

Comparative Fiber Morphology of Four Underutilized Native Tree Species in Maguindanao, Philippines

Jayric F. Villareal — 2025-05-15

The focus of this study was to characterize and compare the fiber morphology (fiber length, fiber diameter, lumen diameter, cell wall thickness, and cell wall fraction) and derived values (Runkel ratio, slenderness ratio, flexibility ratio, Mulhsteph ratio, rigidity coefficient, and Luce’s shape factor) of four underutilized native tree species grown in the Maguindanao region, namely; Dita (Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br.), Himbabao (Broussonetia luzonica Blanco), Tangisang Bayawak (Ficus variegata Blume), and Kalukoi (Ficus callosa Willd.). Wood samples from the selected trees (between 10-20 years old) were collected at dbh level (1.30 m) and then macerated for three hours. The macerated wood fibers were observed under a Euromex compound microscope and then measured using ImageJ Software. Results revealed that F. variegata had the longest recorded fiber (2.73 mm) with the thickest cell wall (9.57 µm) and highest values for cell wall fraction (36.72%), Runkel ratio (0.74), slenderness ratio (60.48), Mulhsteph ratio (53.63%), rigidity coefficient (0.17), and Luce’s shape factor (0.43). As for fiber diameter, F. callosa (52.83 µm) was largest. Moreover, A. scholaris fibers recorded the largest lumen diameter (38.73 µm) with the highest flexibility ratio (77.74%). Analysis of variance showed significant differences relative to fiber morphology and their derived values, except for slenderness ratio. Results suggested that the four underutilized species are good not only for pulp and paper production, but also have potential for light construction, wooden toys and shoes, pencil slats, matchsticks, toothpicks, ice cream spoons, popsicle sticks, boxes, shelves, molding, veneer and plywood, buoys, and floats. In further validation of the suitability of materials towards intended uses, characterization of other wood properties (e.g., physical and mechanical) and consideration of factors like genetic control, locations/habitats, stand density, elevation, age and diameter classes, height level and wood types are recommended.

Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Strategies for Lowland Rice Cultivation under Common Farm Practices, and Accompanying Influencing Factors for Acceptability among Local Farmers in Myanmar

Myo Thet Tin — 2025-05-15

The main purpose of the study was to determine agricultural rice establishment options with specific fertilizer application methods which produce less methane, and lower nitrous oxide emissions (Lower Global Warming Potential. Greenhouse Gases Index and Abatement cost) while still maintaining an acceptable rice yield. To do so, methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions, and grain yields from rice fields were explored, under different farmer fertilizer application methods and two different crop establishment options currently practiced by local farmers, namely transplanted rice (TPR) and wet bed direct seeded rice (WDSR). Both were measured in field experiments. In this study, it was found that rice cultivation emitted CH₄ and N₂O at the rate of 3.23±0.94 mg/m²/h (ranging from 1.83-4.68) and 0.089±0.024 mg/m²/h (ranging from 0.073-0.135), respectively. In addition, TPR produced more CH₄ and N₂O than WDSR did across the different fertilizer methods at almost each growth stage throughout the growing period. Finally, the result was a pair of rice cultivation practices-including WDSR with urea nitrogen fertilizer application (WF1)-which show great potential for mitigating GHG emissions in the Myanmar agricultural sector. Lower GWP, GHGI, and AAC with acceptable productivity were all seen. Moreover, this study was designed to investigate influencing factors on acceptability of local farmers upon WF1. Some 36% of respondents among local farmers were willing to accept WF1 with conditions, while 30% acceptability was found in neutral respondents, not yet decided on practices of rice cultivation for coming seasons. According to multiple regression analysis, the influencing factors of farmers’ acceptability towards WF1 were their rice cultivation experience, the number of available agriculture information sources, and the total quantity of cultivated land for rice growing.

Landslide Disaster Risk for Small and Medium Agricultural Enterprises (SMAEs)

Ngadisih Ngadisih — 2025-05-15

Small and Medium Agricultural Enterprises (SMAEs) are crucial for economic development in many developing countries, particularly in rural areas. Following a disaster, SMAEs experience the most profound impacts on their capital, logistics, workforce, and marketing operations. This study examines the impact of landslides on SMAEs in Selopamioro village, Bantul Regency of Special Region Yogyakarta. The study focused on the economic sensitivity of SMAEs and assessed their spatial distribution and classifications using drone aerial imagery and a village landslide database from 2010 to 2024. A total of 120 SMAEs were identified and classified by type in accordance with Indonesian laws. A representative sample of 60 SMAEs was validated using the Slovin formula. The study employed a hybrid survey methodology, combining interviews with village and hamlet leaders and on-site surveys using standardized questionnaires. The results showed that SMAEs in all hamlets of Selopamioro village have relatively low sensitivity, indicating that recent landslides have had limited effects on their sustainability. The village’s disaster response capacity was moderate, but the study identified deficiencies in planning for potential future landslides. This study provides valuable insights for SMAEs and local governments regarding proactive risk mitigation strategies.

Physico-Mechanical Properties of Two Native Tree Species in the Philippines and Their Potential as Alternatives to Exotic Industrial Tree Plantation Species

Oliver S. Marasigan — 2025-05-16

The potential of Bagalunga (Melia azedarach L.) and Kalumpit (Terminalia microcarpa Decne) as alternatives to Falcata [Falcataria falcata (L.) Greuter & R. Rankin], Gmelina (Gmelina arborea Roxb. ex Sm.), and Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King) were evaluated by assessing their physico-mechanical properties in accordance with ASTM D143-52: 2019 standards. Results showed that Mahogany had the lowest green moisture content (MC) at 90.60% and the highest basic relative density (RD_b) at 0.52, while Falcata exhibited the highest green MC (193.98%) and the lowest RD_b (0.29). Bagalunga displayed the highest shrinkage values [tangential shrinkage (TS): 6.63%, radial shrinkage (RS): 4.48%, volumetric shrinkage (VS): 10.81%], whereas Mahogany showed the lowest shrinkage (TS: 3.59%, RS: 3.11%, VS: 6.81%) but the highest longitudinal shrinkage (LS) (0.42%). Mahogany recorded the highest modulus of rupture (MOR) (63.65 MPa and 66.96 MPa at green and 12% MC, respectively), and excelled in compression [parallel (27.28 MPa and 35.62 MPa), perpendicular (7.14 MPa and 7.89 MPa)], hardness [side (4.67 kN and 4.20 kN), end (5.48 kN and 5.49 kN)], and shear strength (8.37 MPa and 10.37 MPa). Kalumpit exhibited the highest toughness in both green and 12% MC conditions (48.51 J/Spec and 42.62 J/Spec), along with the highest SPL (33.42 MPa) and MOE (8.58 GPa) at 12% MC. Gmelina had the highest MOE (7.12 GPa), while Mahogany showed the highest SPL (25.50 MPa) in the green condition. Height levels significantly affected TS and VS, while mechanical properties showed minimal variation. Farmers may consider Bagalunga and Kalumpit as alternative species. The application of silvicultural practices is essential for improving growth, optimizing rotation cycles, and ensuring sustainability for native tree species.

Heavy Metals Contamination Assessment Using Pollution Indices for Spring Water in Barwari Bala Villages, Duhok, Kurdistan Region-Iraq

Mohammed Jalil Qasim — 2025-05-27

Regular quality monitoring of drinking water resources is crucial for ensuring a safe drinking water supply for various users. Thus, this study was carried out to assess water safety for human drinking in terms of heavy metal content using pollution indices for spring water in Barwari Bala Villages located in Duhok City, Kurdistan Region of Iraq. Six spring water samples were collected at 10 to 15 day intervals from 10 areas during the summer of 2023. All 60 samples were analyzed in the laboratory to evaluate heavy metal concentrations, including manganese (Mn), chromium (Cr), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb). The overall quality of water was then assessed by utilizing pollution indices, including the degree of contamination (Cd), the heavy metal evaluation index (HEI), and the heavy metal pollution index (HPI). The results revealed that the concentrations of all the selected heavy metals found in spring water samples were lower than the permissible limits based on Iraqi standards, except for Pb in sites SW1 (Kyle Baze), SW2 (Kani Mazne), and SW8 (Derishke), which had higher concentrations of Pb depending on the prescribed limits (10 µg/L). According to metal pollution indices, the values of all the indices were lower than their critical ranges of contamination, indicating that the water of every site was safe for drinking. However, greater concentrations of Pb in spring water at sites SW1, SW2, and SW8 might have an adverse impact on human consumption in the long term. Thus, the treatment of spring water at these sites before utilization is highly recommended to ensure safe water for consumption. Further research is needed to determine the causes and contributing factors behind the rising lead (Pb) levels observed at those locations, as well as to develop appropriate treatment strategies to mitigate contamination.

The Impact of Community Participation on Tourism Village Management and Sustainability: A Case Study in Wonokitri Village, Pasuruan

Alfi Muflikhah Lestari — 2025-06-04

This research explores the impact of community participation in tourism village management –represented through motivation, opportunity and ability - and its implications for sustainability. Tourism villages, as a local community participation movement, play an important role in promoting economic, social, environmental, and cultural welfare. This study uses a quantitative approach with Partial Least Square-Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) analysis techniques and was conducted in Wonokitri Village, Tosari District, Pasuruan Regency, East Java, Indonesia. Data were collected through questionnaires from 100 local community respondents. The results showed that motivation, opportunity, and ability had a significant impact on tourism village management, with an r-square contribution of 61.4%. However, only tourism village management had a significant influence on sustainability, with an r-square contribution of 85.2%. These findings emphasize the importance of tourism village management through strategic planning, technology, innovation, and community involvement in creating tourism village sustainability. In addition, the main driving factors in effective management include motivation indicators such as awareness of preserving culture and the environment, as well as job and economic opportunities, and increased income. This research provides theoretical contributions by expanding the sustainability model based on tourism village management and providing operational guidelines for the government, managers, and local communities to encourage tourism villages as centers of sustainable economic growth, as well as cultural and environmental preservation.

Enhancing the Geotechnical Behavior of Expansive Soil-Coconut Fiber Mixtures with Various Agricultural Ash Waste: A Comparative Study

Anita Widianti — 2025-06-20

Expansive soil is classified as problematic because it has a high plasticity index, high swelling shrinkage due to water content fluctuations, and low bearing capacity. This research focused on stabilizing it with coconut fiber and three different types of agricultural ash: sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA), rice husk ash (RHA), and coir-wood ash (CWA). Coconut fiber made up 0.75% of the material and acted as reinforcement. The three types of ash were used in varying proportions (0%, 2%, 4%, 6%, 8%, and 10% of the mixture’s total weight) to reduce swelling shrinkage and enhance bearing capacity through cementation. The mixture was compacted to the soil’s Maximum Dry Density and Optimum Moisture Content. Then, the specimens were cured for different durations. The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) testing specimens were cured for 7 days and 14 days, while those for Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) testing were cured for 14 days and 28 days. All testing complied with ASTM standards. The results showed that strengthening coconut fiber and stabilizing with three different types of ash in expansive soil increased CBR and UCS values and significantly reduced swelling. These improvements were directly proportional to increases in the ash content and curing time. Optimal outcomes were achieved with all three types of ash at a similar content level, ranging from 8% to 10%. For specimens cured for 14 days, CBR values increased to 9.24% (RHA), 11.96% (SBA), and 13.44% (CWA), representing an improvement of 6.4 to 9.8 times compared to unstabilized soil. For specimens cured for 28 days, UCS values increased to 440.69 kPa (CWA), 472.45 kPa (SBA), and 482.96 kPa (RHA), representing an improvement of 9.6 to 10.6 times compared to unstabilized soil. A swelling value of 0% was achieved in the soil-coconut fiber mixture stabilized with a 10% concentration of RHA/SBA/CWA. These findings suggest that each type of ash has advantages and disadvantages, but all ultimately contribute to increasing soil strength and eliminating swelling. By utilizing agricultural waste for expansive soil stabilization, significant benefits can be achieved for the government, industry, and local communities. Developing technical guidelines for using agricultural waste as a soil stabilizer will greatly facilitate its practical application in the field.