Microplastic Pollution in Mindanao's Taguibo River Watershed Forest Reserve: Characterization, and Distribution Patterns, and Implications for Freshwater Ecosystem Conservation
Article Sidebar
Main Article Content
Abstract
Despite increasing awareness of microplastic pollution and the harm it brings to terrestrial ecosystems and human body, few research works have examined how it contributes to freshwater environments, particularly forest reserves. Microplastic presence and characteristics were examined in Mindanao's Taguibo River Watershed Forest Reserve (TRWFR). Three (3) sampling sites along the river stretch were chosen. Analysis of water and sediment samples found microplastic abundances at 477.78 ± 182.83 pa/m3 and 17.04 ± 14.80 pa/kg, respectively. These microplastics varied in size, shape, and color. A total of 9 and 7 color variations were detected from water and sediment samples, respectively. Brown (43.02%) and black (17.44%), and fibers (39.53%) and films (24.42%) were the most common microplastics from water samples. White (30.43%), and blue and brown (21.74%), and filament (69.57%) were the most common microplastics from sediment samples. FTIR-ATR spectroscopy described the microplastics further. A total of 13 polymer types were identified in water samples, while 8 polymer types were identified in sediment samples. Polymer types such as polyacetylene and regenerated cellulose fibers were mostly found in water samples; and polypropylene and regenerated cellulose fibers from sediment samples. This study shows microplastic pollution in the TRWFR. Microplastic incidence and distribution patterns vary among collection locations, suggesting some areas are more susceptible to pollution. This work improves our understanding of freshwater microplastic contamination and underscores the need to monitor and reduce microplastic pollution to preserve the ecological balance in the Taguibo River and its surroundings.
Article Details
References
L. J. J. Meijer, T. van Emmerik, R. van der Ent, C. Schmidt, and L. Lebreton, “More than 1000 rivers account for 80% of global riverine plastic emissions into the ocean,” Science Advances, vol. 7, no. 18, Apr. 2021, Art. no. eaaz5803, doi: 10.1126/sciadv.aaz5803.
J. R. Jambeck, R. Geyer, C. Wilcox, T. R. Siegler, M. Perryman, A. Andrady, R. Narayan, and K. L. Law, “Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean,” Science, vol. 347, no. 6223, pp. 768– 771, Feb. 2015, doi: 10.1126/science.1260352.
R. E. Sajorne, H. P. Bacosa, G. D. B. Cayabo, L. B. A. Jr, J. D.C. Sumeldan, J. M. Omar, and L. A. Creencia, “Plastic litter pollution along sandy beaches in Puerto Princesa, Palawan Island, Philippines,” Marine Pollution Bulletin, vol. 169, Aug. 2021, Art. no. 112520, doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.112520.
S. A. Inocente and H. Bacosa, “Assessment of macroplastic pollution on selected tourism beaches of Barobo, Surigao Del Sur, Philippines,” Journal of Marine Island Cultures, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 203–214, Jun. 2022, doi: 10.21463/ jmic.2022.11.1.14.
F. T. Acot, R. E. Sajorne, N.-A. K. Omar, P. D. Suson, L. E. E. Rallos, and H. P. Bacosa, “Unraveling macroplastic pollution in rural and urban beaches in Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape, Mindanao, Philippines,” Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, vol. 10, no. 10, Oct. 2022, Art. no. 1532, doi: 10.3390/jmse 10101532.
C. J. Pacilan and H. Bacosa, “Assessment of macroplastic litter on the coastal seabeds of Sultan Naga Dimaporo, Lanao Del Norte, Philippines,” Journal of Marine Island Cultures, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 13-25, Dec. 2022, doi: 10.21463/ jmic.2022.11.2.02.
S. M. M. Gaboy, J. Q. Guihawan, V. E. Leopardas, and H. P. Bacosa, “Unravelling macroplastic pollution in seagrass beds of Iligan city, Mindanao, Philippines,” Marine Pollution Bulletin, vol. 185, Dec. 2022, Art. no. 114233, doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2022.114233.
J. Requiron and H. Bacosa, “Macroplastic transport and deposition in the environs of Pulauan River, Dapitan City, Philippines,” Philippine Journal of Science, vol. 151, no. 3, pp. 1211–1220, Jun. 2022.
A. Escañan and H. Bacosa, “Assessment of riverine plastic flux in Pulot River and its tributary in Sofronio Española, Palawan, Philippines,” Journal of Marine Island Cultures, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 1–12, Dec. 2022, doi: 10.21463/ jmic.2022.11.2.01.
M. Cole, P. Lindeque, E. Fileman, C. Halsband, R. Goodhead, J. Moger, and T. S. Galloway, “Microplastic ingestion by zooplankton,” Environmental Science & Technology, vol. 47, no. 12, pp. 6646–6655, Jun. 2013, doi: 10.1021/ es400663f.
M. A. N Tanchuling, E.D. Osorio, “The Microplastics in Metro Manila Rivers: Characteristics, Sources, and Abatement,” in Plastics in the Aquatic Environment - Part I: Current Status and Challenges, F. Stock, G. Reifferscheid, N. Brennholt, and E. Kostianaia, Eds., Switzerland: Springer Nature, pp. 405–426, 2020, doi: 10.1007/698_2020_659E. D.
A. L. Andrady, “The plastic in microplastics: A review,” Marine Pollution Bulletin, vol. 119, no. 1, pp. 12–22, Jun. 2017, doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.01.082.
C. Schmidt, T. Krauth, and S. Wagner, “Export of plastic debris by rivers into the sea,” Environmental Science & Technology, vol. 51, no. 21, pp. 12246– 12253, Nov. 2017, doi: 10.1021/acs.est.7b02368.
A. T. Williams, N. G. Rangel-Buitrago, G. Anfuso, O. Cervantes, and C. M. Botero, “Litter impacts on scenery and tourism on the Colombian north Caribbean coast,” Tourism Management, vol. 55, pp. 209–224, Aug. 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.tourman.2016.02.008.
S. Lincoln, B. Andrews, S. N. Birchenough, P. Chowdhury, G. H. Engelhard, O. Harrod, J. K. Pinnegar, and B. L. Townhill, “Marine litter and climate change: Inextricably connected threats to the world’s oceans,” Science of the Total Environment, vol. 837, Sep. 2022, Art. no. 155709, doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155709.
M. Siegfried, A. A. Koelmans, E. Besseling, and C. Kroeze, “Export of microplastics from land to sea. A modelling approach,” Water Research, vol. 127, pp. 249–257, Dec. 2017, doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.10.011.
A. D. Gabriel, R. F. Amparado, A. A. Lubguban, and H. P. Bacosa, “Riverine microplastic pollution: Insights from Cagayan de Oro River, Philippines,” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 20, no. 12, Jun. 2023, Art. no. 6132, doi: 10.3390/ ijerph20126132.
R. E. Sajorne, G. D. B. Cayabo, L. J. A. Gajardo, J. A. Mabuhay-Omar, L. A. Creencia, and H. P. Bacosa, “Disentangling microplastic pollution on beach sand of Puerto Princesa, Palawan Island, Philippines: Abundance and characteristics,” Sustainability, vol. 14, no. 22, Nov. 2022, Art. no. 15303, doi: 10.3390/su142215303.
C. G. L. A. Arcadio, C. K. P. Navarro, K. M. Similatan, S. A. T. Inocente, S. M. B. Ancla, M. H. T. Banda, R. Y. Capangpangan, A. G. Torres, and H. P. Bacosa, “Microplastics in surface water of Laguna de Bay: First documented evidence on the largest lake in the Philippines,” Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 30, no. 11, pp. 29824–29833, Nov. 2022, doi: 10.1007/ s11356-022-24261-5.
C. K. P. Navarro, C. G. L. A. Arcadio, K. M. Similatan, S. A. T. Inocente, M. H. T. Banda, R. Y. Capangpangan, A. G. Torres, and H. P. Bacosa, “Unraveling microplastic pollution in mangrove sediments of Butuan Bay, Philippines,” Sustainability, vol. 14, no. 21, Nov. 2022, Art. no. 14469, doi: 10.3390/su142114469.
Butuan City Water District, “Adopt-a-forest project of butuan city water district in taguibo river forest reserve,” Butuan City, Philippines, 2017.
LEAF Foundation, “Taguibo watershed management and development plan formulation,” Butuan City, Philippines, 2007.
Philippine Congress, “Establishing as the taguibo river watershed forest reserve for the purposes of protection, maintenance and improvement of its water yield and providing restraining mechanism for inappropriate forest exploitation and land-use practices, a certain parcel of land of the public domain situated in the city of butuan and municipalities of remedios trinidad romualdez and cabadbaran, province of Agusan Del Norte, island of Mindanao,” 1997. [Online]. Available: https://www.officialgazette.gov. ph/1997/09/04/proclamation-no-1076-s-1997/
S. A. T. Inocente, M. H. T. Banda, C. Y. Bacsarpa, J. C. C. Aporbo, and R. Y. Capangpangan, “Microplastics extraction: Manual of protocols,” Naawan, Misamis Oriental: Research on Environment and Nanotechnology Laboratories, Mindanao State University at Naawan, 2023.
V. Hidalgo-Ruz, L. Gutow, R. C. Thompson, and M. Thiel, “Microplastics in the marine environment: A review of the methods used for identification and quantification,” Environmental Science & Technology, vol. 46, no. 6, pp. 3060– 3075, Mar. 2012, doi: 10.1021/es2031505.
British Columbia Centre on Substance Use, “Overview of Technologies - BCCSU Drug Checking.” 2020. [Online]. Available: https:// drugcheckingbc.ca/what-is-drug-checking/ overview-of-technologies/
F. M. Baalkhuyur, M. A. Qurban, P. Panickan, and C. M. Duarte, “Microplastics in fishes of commercial and ecological importance from the Western Arabian Gulf,” Marine Pollution Bulletin, vol. 152, Mar. 2020, Art. no. 110920, doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.110920.
D. A. Skoog, M. D. West, F. J. Holler, and S. R. Crouch, Fundamentals of Analytical Chemistry, 9th ed. Massachusetts: Cengage Learning, 2013.
P. L. Lenaker, S. R. Corsi, and S. A. Mason, “Spatial distribution of microplastics in surficial benthic sediment of lake michigan and lake erie,” Environmental Science & Technology, vol. 55, no. 1, pp. 373–384, Jan. 2021, doi: 10.1021/acs. est.0c06087.
Ram Barquin, “Water Supply Status after severe Tropical Storm Odette,” Breakwater, vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 6–12, 2021.
L. Watkins, S. McGrattan, P. J. Sullivan, and M. T. Walter, “The effect of dams on river transport of microplastic pollution,” Science of the Total Environment, vol. 664, pp. 834–840, May 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.028.
R. Hurley, J. Woodward, and J. J. Rothwell, “Microplastic contamination of river beds significantly reduced by catchment-wide flooding,” Nature Geoscience, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 251–257, Apr. 2018, doi: 10.1038/s41561-018-0080-1.
J. Wang, J. Peng, Z. Tan, Y. Gao, Z. Zhan, Q. Chen, and L. Cai, “Microplastics in the surface sediments from the Beijiang River littoral zone: Composition, abundance, surface textures and interaction with heavy metals,” Chemosphere, vol. 171, pp. 248–258, Mar. 2017, doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.12.074.
L. V. Cauwenberghe, L. Devriese, F. Galgani, J. Robbens, and C. R. Janssen, “Microplastics in sediments: A review of techniques, occurrence and effects,” Marine Environmental Research, vol. 111, pp. 5–17, Oct. 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2015.06.007.
C. Verster and H. Bouwman, “Land-based sources and pathways of marine plastics in a South African context,” South African Journal of Science, vol. 116, no. 5–6, May 2020, doi: 10.17159/sajs.2020/7700.
AdrecoPlastics, “Polypropylene Plastic Uses,” 2022. [Online]. Available: https://adrecoplastics. co.uk/polypropylene-uses/
P. L. Corcoran, “Degradation of Microplastics in the Environment,” in Handbook of Microplastics in the Environment. Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 531–542, 2022. doi: 10.1007/978- 3-030-39041-9_10.
G. Wong, L. Löwemark, and A. Kunz, “Microplastic pollution of the Tamsui River and its tributaries in northern Taiwan: Spatial heterogeneity and correlation with precipitation,” Environmental Pollution, vol. 260, May 2020, Art. no. 113935, doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.113935.
L. Yang, Y. Zhang, S. Kang, Z. Wang, and C. Wu, “Microplastics in soil: A review on methods, occurrence, sources, and potential risk,” Science of the Total Environment, vol. 780, Aug. 2021, Art. no. 146546, doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv. 2021.146546.
C. G. L. A. Arcadio, C. K. P. Navarro, K. M. Similatan, S. A. T. Inocente, S. M. B. Ancla, M. H. T. Banda, R. Y. Capangpangan, A. G. Torres, and H. P. Bacosa, “Microplastics in surface water of Laguna de Bay: first documented evidence on the largest lake in the Philippines,” Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 30, no. 11, pp. 29824–29833, Nov. 2022, doi: 10.1007/ s11356-022-24261-5.
D. Thetford, “Synthesis and properties of some polycyclic barbiturate pigments,” Dyes and Pigments, vol. 59, no. 2, pp. 185–191, Nov. 2003, doi: 10.1016/S0143-7208(03)00104-9.
N. Prinz and Š. Korez, “Understanding how microplastics affect marine biota on the cellular level is important for assessing ecosystem function: A review,” in YOUMARES 9 - The Oceans: Our Research, Our Future. Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 101–120, 2020. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-20389-4_6.
N. C. Ory, P. Sobral, J. L. Ferreira, and M. Thiel, “Amberstripe scad Decapterus muroadsi (Carangidae) fish ingest blue microplastics resembling their copepod prey along the coast of Rapa Nui (Easter Island) in the South Pacific subtropical gyre,” Science of the Total Environment, vol. 586, pp. 430–437, May 2017, doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.01.175.
Y. Garnier, H. Jacob, A. S. Guerra, F. Bertucci, and D. Lecchini, “Evaluation of microplastic ingestion by tropical fish from Moorea Island, French Polynesia,” Marine Pollution Bulletin, vol. 140, pp. 165–170, Mar. 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.01.038.
R. Egessa, A. Nankabirwa, H. Ocaya, and W. G. Pabire, “Microplastic pollution in surface water of Lake Victoria,” Science of the Total Environment, vol. 741, Nov. 2020, Art. no. 140201, doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140201.
P. Thamsenanupap, T. Tanee, and J. Kaewsuk, “Evidence of microplastics in the Chi River Basin, Thailand: Anthropogenic influence and potential threats to edible arthropods,” Limnologica, vol. 97, Nov. 2022, Art. no. 126030, doi: 10.1016/j.limno.2022.126030.
T. Baraza, N. F. Hernandez, J. N. Sebok, C.-L. Wu, E. A. Hasenmueller, and J. H. Knouft, “Integrating land cover, point source pollution, and watershed hydrologic processes data to understand the distribution of microplastics in riverbed sediments,” Environmental Pollution, vol. 311, Oct. 2022, Art. no. 119852, doi: 10.1016/j.envpol. 2022.119852.
S. Abbasi, “Prevalence and physicochemical characteristics of microplastics in the sediment and water of Hashilan Wetland, a national heritage in NW Iran,” Environmental Technology Innovation, vol. 23, Aug. 2021, Art. no. 101782, doi: 10.1016/j.eti.2021.101782.
Y. Huang, M. Tian, F. Jin, M. Chen, Z. Liu, S. He, F. Li, L. Yang, C. Fang, and J. Mu, “Coupled effects of urbanization level and dam on microplastics in surface waters in a coastal watershed of Southeast China,” Marine Pollution Bulletin, vol. 154, May 2020, Art. no. 111089, doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111089.
J. Li, Z. Ouyang, P. Liu, X. Zhao, R. Wu, C. Zhang, C. Lin, Y. Li, and X. Guo, “Distribution and characteristics of microplastics in the basin of Chishui River in Renhuai, China,” Science of the Total Environment, vol. 773, Jun. 2021, Art. no. 145591, doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145591.
F. Correa-Araneda, J. Pérez, A. M. Tonin, C. Esse, L. Boyero, M. E. Díaz, R. Figueroa, R. Santander-Massa, A. Cornejo, O. Link, and E. Jorquera, “Microplastic concentration, distribution and dynamics along one of the largest Mediterranean-climate rivers: A whole watershed approach,” Environmental Research, vol. 209, Jun. 2022, Art. no. 112808, doi: 10.1016/j.envres. 2022.112808.
S. L. R. Lumongsod and M. A. N. Tanchuling, “Microplastic characterization and analysis in Three Makati City Creeks,” presented at the 4th symposium of the international waste working group-Asian regional board (IWWG-ARB) 2019, Bangkok, Thailand, Feb. 20–22, 2019.
E. D. Osorio, M. A. N. Tanchuling, and Ma. B. L. D. Diola, “Microplastics occurrence in surface waters and sediments in Five River Mouths of Manila Bay,” Frontiers in Environmental Science, vol. 9, Sep. 2021, Art. no. 719274, doi: 10.3389/fenvs.2021.719274.
H. L. Argota, J. A. Bajado, M. D. Diola, and M. A. N. Tanchuling, “Macro- and microplastic pollution in Tunasan River, Metro Manila, Philippines,” presented at the 4th symposium of the international waste working group-Asian regional board (IWWG-ARB) 2019, Bangkok, Thailand, Feb. 20–22, 2019.
Y. Liu, J. Zhang, C. Cai, Y. He, L. Chen, X. Xiong, H. Huang, S. Tao, and W. Liu, “Occurrence and characteristics of microplastics in the Haihe River: An investigation of a seagoing river flowing through a megacity in northern China,” Environmental Pollution, vol. 262, Jul. 2020, Art. no. 114261, doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020. 114261.
E. Q. Espiritu, S. A. S. Dayrit, A. S. O. Coronel, N. S. C. Paz, P. I. L. Ronquillo, V. C. G. Castillo, and E. P. Enriquez, “Assessment of quantity and quality of microplastics in the sediments, waters, oysters, and selected fish species in key sites along the bombong estuary and the coastal waters of Ticalan in San Juan, Batangas,” Philippine Journal of Science, vol. 148, no. 4, pp. 789–201, 2019.
Y. Qiu, S. Zhou, W. Qin, C. Zhang, C. Lv, and M. Zou, “Effects of land use on the distribution of soil microplastics in the Lihe River watershed, China,” Chemosphere, vol. 324, May 2023, Art. no. 138292, doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere. 2023.138292.
G. Priyambada, B. Kurniawan, R. G. Sitompul, and L. Darmayanti, “The abundance of microplastics in Siak tributary sediments in the watershed area, Pekanbaru City, Riau (Case Study Sago River),” Materials Today: Proceedings, vol. 87, pp. 272–277, Mar. 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.matpr. 2023.03.207.
A. A. Horton, A. Walton, D. J. Spurgeon, E. Lahive, and C. Svendsen, “Microplastics in freshwater and terrestrial environments: Evaluating the current understanding to identify the knowledge gaps and future research priorities,” Science of the Total Environment, vol. 586, pp. 127–141, May 2017, doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.01.190.
J. Lian, W. Liu, L. Meng, J. Wu, A. Zeb, L. Cheng, Y. Lian, and H. Sun, “Effects of microplastics derived from polymer-coated fertilizer on maize growth, rhizosphere, and soil properties,” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 318, Oct. 2021, Art no. 128571, doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro. 2021.128571.
N. Weithmann, J. N. Möller, M. G. J. Löder, S. Piehl, C. Laforsch, and R. Freitag, “Organic fertilizer as a vehicle for the entry of microplastic into the environment,” Science Advances, vol. 4, no. 4, Apr. 2018, Art. no. eaap806, doi: 10.1126/sciadv.aap8060.
M. Bläsing and W. Amelung, “Plastics in soil: Analytical methods and possible sources,” Science of the Total Environment, vol. 612, pp. 422–435, Jan. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv. 2017.08.086.
Z. Steinmetz, C. Wollman, M. Schaefer, C. Buchmann, J. David, J. Tröger, K. Muñoz, O. Frör, and G. E. Schaumann, “Plastic mulching in agriculture. Trading short-term agronomic benefits for long-term soil degradation?,” Science of the Total Environment, vol. 550, pp. 690–705, Apr. 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.01.153.
D. Habib, D. C. Locke, and L. J. Cannone, “Synthetic fibers as indicators of municipal sewage sludge, sludge products, and sewage treatment plant effluents,” Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, vol. 103, pp. 1–8, 1998, doi: 10.1023/ A:1004908110793.
K. A. V. Zubris and B. K. Richards, “Synthetic fibers as an indicator of land application of sludge,” Environmental Pollution, vol. 138, no. 2, pp. 201–211, Nov. 2005, doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2005.04.013.
R. Dris, J. Gasperi, M. Saad, C. Mirande, and B. Tassin, “Synthetic fibers in atmospheric fallout: A source of microplastics in the environment?,” Marine Pollution Bulletin, vol. 104, no. 1–2, pp. 290–293, Mar. 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul. 2016.01.006.
L. Cai, J. Wang, J. Peng, Z. Tan, Z. Zhan, X. Tan, and Q. Chen, “Characteristic of microplastics in the atmospheric fallout from Dongguan city, China: Preliminary research and first evidence,” Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 24, no. 32, pp. 24928–24935, Nov. 2017, doi: 10.1007/s11356-017-0116-x.
F. De Falco, E. Di Pace, M. Cocca, and M. Avella, “The contribution of washing processes of synthetic clothes to microplastic pollution,” Scientific Reports, vol. 9, Apr. 2019, Art. no. 6633, doi: 10.1038/s41598-019-43023-x.
B. M. Carney Almroth, L. Åström, S. Roslund, H. Petersson, M. Johansson, and N.-K. Persson, “Quantifying shedding of synthetic fibers from textiles; a source of microplastics released into the environment,” Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 1191–1199, Jan. 2018, doi: 10.1007/s11356-017-0528-7.
A. Lehmann, E. F. Leifheit, M. Gerdawischke, and M. C. Rillig, “Microplastics have shape- and polymer-dependent effects on soil aggregation and organic matter loss – An experimental and meta-analytical approach,” Microplastics and Nanoplastics, vol. 1, Dec. 2021, Art. no. 7, doi: 10.1186/s43591-021-00007-x.
M. Salerno, M. Berlino, M. C. Mangano, and G. Sarà, “Microplastics and the functional traits of fishes: A global meta‐analysis,” Global Change Biology, vol. 27, no. 12, pp. 2645–2655, Jun. 2021, doi: 10.1111/gcb.15570.
B. Li, W. Liang, Q. X. Liu, S. Fu, C. Ma, Q. Chen, L. Su, N. J. Craig, and H. Shi, “Fish Ingest Microplastics Unintentionally,” Environmental Science & Technology, vol. 55, no. 15, pp. 10471– 10479, Aug. 2021, doi: 10.1021/acs.est.1c01753.
A. N. Netravali, “Ramie Fiber Reinforced Natural Plastics,” in Natural Fibers, Plastics and Composites, F. T. Wallenberger and N. E. Weston, Eds. Boston, MA: Springer, pp. 321–343, 2004. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4419-9050-1_18.
J. Chen, “Synthetic Textile Fibers: Regenerated Cellulose Fibers,” in Textiles and Fashion, R. Sinclair, Ed. Sawston, UK: Elsevier, pp. 57–78, 2015, doi: 10.1016/C2013-0-17410-7.
Asahi Kasei Corporation Fibers & Textiles, “Bemberg Cupro Fiber Official Website,” 2023. [Online]. Available: https://www.asahi-kasei. co.jp/fibers/en/bemberg/
R. Thomson, “Plastic Pollution and the Planet,” 2017. [Online]. Available: https://www.plymouth. ac.uk/news/pr-opinion/plastic-pollution-and-the-planet
M. A. Browne, P. Crump, S. J. Niven, E. Teuten, A. Tonkin, T. Galloway, and R. Thompson, “Accumulation of microplastic on shorelines worldwide: Sources and sinks,” Environmental Science & Technology, vol. 45, no. 21, pp. 9175– 9179, Nov. 2011, doi: 10.1021/es201811s.
B. Widianarko and I. Hantoro, Mikroplastik dalam Seafood dari Pantai Utara Jawa. Semarang: Universitas Katolik Soegijapranata, 2018.
C. J. Moore, G. L. Lattin, and A. F. Zellers, “Quantity and type of plastic debris flowing from two urban rivers to coastal waters and beaches of Southern California,” Journal of Integrated Coastal Zone Management, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 65–73, 2011.
Y. Li, Y. Sun, J. Li, R. Tang, Y. Miu, and X. Ma, “Research on the Influence of Microplastics on Marine Life,” IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, vol. 631, no. 1, Jan. 2021, Art. no. 012006, doi: 10.1088/1755- 1315/631/1/012006.