Major Ion Chemistry of the Bheri (Snow-Fed) and the Babai (Rain-Fed) River Systems in Western Nepal: Implication on Water Quality 10.32526/ennrj/21/202200273
Article Sidebar
Main Article Content
Abstract
Inter Basin Water Transfer (IBWT) is a water resource stressor globally with negative environmental impacts. This study describes the major ions and hydrochemistry of the first ever ongoing IBWT from snow-fed Bheri River to rain-fed Babai River in Western Nepal. Water samples from 10 sites, five from each river system, were collected in HDPE bottles for major ions (,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
) along with the estimation of pH, temperature and conductivity encompassing winter, spring, summer, and autumn in 2018.
and
were the most dominant cation and anion, respectively, with
water type in both the river systems. Mann Whitney test revealed significant variation (p<0.05) between the two river systems with regard to
,
,
, and
. Kruskall Wallis test revealed significant variations between seasons in pH, temperature,
,
, and
in Bheri River system, and in pH, TDS, temperature,
,
,
and
in Babai River system. Carbonate weathering was the main mechanism of ionic sources with insignificant contribution from silicate weathering. Relatively higher concentrations of the major ions during the dry seasons probably indicate the dilution effect of monsoon. Higher concentrations of the ions in the Babai River system reflect the latter’s bedrock geology with susceptibility to erosion. With Nepal’s future plans of IBWTs and their environmental implications, this finding could be helpful in mitigating the negative consequences of IBWTs in the impact assessment and management of IBWT projects because of their implications on management of aquatic resources.
Article Details
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Published articles are under the copyright of the Environment and Natural Resources Journal effective when the article is accepted for publication thus granting Environment and Natural Resources Journal all rights for the work so that both parties may be protected from the consequences of unauthorized use. Partially or totally publication of an article elsewhere is possible only after the consent from the editors.
References
Acreman M. Water and ecology linking the earth’s ecosystems to its hydrological cycle. In: Revista CIDOB d’Afers Internacionals 45-46. Barcelona Centre for International Affairs; 1999. p. 129-144.
Asian Development Bank (ADB). Impact of Dams on Fish in the Rivers of Nepal. Manila, Philippines: ADB; 2018. p. 95-110.
American Public Health Association (APHA). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 21st ed. Washington DC, USA: American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, and Water Environment Federation; 2005.
Arita K, Shiraishi K, Hayashi D. Geology of western Nepal and a comparison with Kumaun, India. Journal of the Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University. Series 4, Geology and Mineralogy 1984;21:1-20.
Bajracharya R, Nakamura T, Ghimire S, Shakya BM, Tamrakar NK. Identifying groundwater and river water interconnections using hydrochemistry, stable isotopes, and statistical methods in Hanumante river, Kathmandu Valley, Central Nepal. Water 2020;12(6):Article No. 1524.
Best J. Anthropogenic stresses on the world’s big rivers. Nature Geoscience 2019;12:7-21.
Bhateria R, Jain D. Water quality assessment of lake water: A review. Sustainable Water Resources Management 2016; 2:161-73.
Bhatta R, Gurung S, Joshi R, Tuladhar S, Regmi D, Kafle BK, et al. Spatio-temporal hydrochemistry of two selected Ramsar sites (Rara and Ghodaghodi) of west Nepal. Heliyon 2022;8(11):e11243.
Bisht H, Arya PC, Kumar K. Hydro-chemical analysis and ionic flux of meltwater runoff from Khangri Glacier, West Kameng, Arunachal Himalaya, India. Environmental Earth Sciences 2018;77:1-16.
Biswas B, Qi F, Biswas JK, Wijayawardena A, Khan MAI, Naidu R. The fate of chemical pollutants with soil properties and processes in the climate change paradigm: A review. Soil Systems 2018;2(3):Article No. 51.
Bolch T, Pieczonka T, Benn DI. Multi-decadal mass loss of glaciers in the Everest area (Nepal Himalaya) derived from stereo imagery. The Cryosphere 2011;5:349-58.
Boyd CE. Water Quality: An Introduction. 3rd ed. Cham, Switzerland: Springer Nature; 2020.
Bui DT, Asl DT, Ghanavati E, Al-Ansari N, Khezri S, Chapi K, et al. Effects of inter-basin water transfer on water flow condition of destination basin. Sustainability 2020;12(1):Article No. 338.
Bunn SE, Arthington AH. Basic principles and ecological consequences of altered flow regimes for aquatic biodiversity. Environmental Management 2002;30(4):492-507.
Carr GM, Neary JP. Water Quality for Ecosystem and Human Health. 2nd ed. UNEP GEMS/Water Programme; 2008.
Chapman DV. Water Quality Assessments: A Guide to the Use of Biota, Sediments and Water in Environmental Monitoring. 2nd ed: CRC Press; 1996.
Chhetri TB, Dhital YP, Tandong Y, Devkota LP, Dawadi B. Observations of heavy rainfall and extreme flood events over Banke-Bardiya Districts of Nepal in 2016-2017. Progress in Disaster Science 2020;6:Article No. 100074.
Ciparis S, Rhyne G, Stephenson T. Exposure to elevated concentrations of major ions decreases condition index of freshwater mussels: Comparison of metrics. Freshwater Mollusk Biology and Conservation 2019;22:98-108.
de Lucena Barbosa JE, dos Santos Severiano J, Cavalcante H, de Lucena-Silva D, Mendes CF, Barbosa VV, et al. Impacts of inter-basin water transfer on the water quality of receiving reservoirs in a tropical semi-arid region. Hydrobiologia 2021;848:651-73.
Dhital MR. Geology of the Nepal Himalaya: Regional Perspective of the Classic Collided Orogen. Cham, Switzerland: Springer; 2015.
Domenico PA, Schwartz FW. Physical and Chemical Hydrogeology. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.; 1998.
Ewaid SH. Water quality evaluation of Al-Gharraf River by two water quality indices. Applied Water Science 2016;7:3759-65.
Ferguson JW, Healey M, Dugan P, Barlow C. Potential effects of dams on migratory fish in the Mekong River: Lessons from salmon in the Fraser and Columbia Rivers. Environmental Management 2011;47:141-59.
Gergel SE. Spatial and non-spatial factors: When do they affect landscape indicators of watershed loading? Landscape Ecology 2005;20:177-89.
Gibbs RJ. Mechanisms controlling world water chemistry. Science 1970;170:1088-90.
Ghassemi F, White I. Inter-Basin Water Transfer: Case Studies from Australia, United States, Canada, China and India. UK: Cambridge University Press; 2007.
Ghimire NP, Adhikari N, Pant RR, Thakuri S. Characterizations of water quality in West-Seti and Tamor River Basins, Nepal. Scientific World 2021;14:106-14.
Gallardo B, Aldridge DC. Inter-basin water transfers and the expansion of aquatic invasive species. Water Research 2018;143:282-91.
Government of Nepal, Babai Bheri Diversion Multipurpose Project (GoN/BBDMP). Strategic plan of BBDMP [Internet]. 2018 [retrived 2018 Nov 14]. Available from: http://www.bbdmp.gov.np.
Government of Nepal, Department of Water Resources and Irrigation (GoN/DWRI). Irrigation Master Plan 2019. Singha Durbar, Kathmandu, Nepal: GoN/DWRI; 2019.
Government of Nepal, National Planning Commission (GoN/NPC). Nepal’s Sustainable Development Goals, Status and Roadmap: 2016-2030. Singha Durbar, Kathmandu, Nepal: GoN/NPC; 2017.
Grant EH, Lynch HJ, Muneepeerakul R, Arunachalam M, Rodriguez-Iturbe I, Fagan WF. Interbasin water transfer, riverine connectivity, and spatial controls on fish biodiversity. PLoS ONE. 2012;7(3):e34170.
Granzotti RV, Miranda LE, Agostinho AA, Gomes LC. Downstream impacts of dams: Shifts in benthic invertivorous fish assemblages. Aquatic Sciences 2018;80(3):1-14.
Guo C, Chen Y, Gozlan RE, Liu H, Lu Y, Qu X, et al. Patterns of fish communities and water quality in impounded lakes of China’s south-to-north water diversion project. Science of the Total Environment 2020;713:Article No. 136515.
Gupta D, Kaushik S, Shukla R, Mishra VK. Mechanisms controlling major ion chemistry and its suitability for irrigation of Narmada River, India. Water Supply 2022;22:3224-41.
Gurung S, Gurung A, Sharma CM, Jüttner I, Tripathee L, Bajracharya RM, et al. Hydrochemistry of Lake Rara: A high mountain lake in western Nepal. Lakes and Reservoirs: Science, Policy and Management for Sustainable Use 2018;23:87-97.
He T, Deng Y, Tuo Y, Yang Y, Liang N. Impact of the dam construction on the downstream thermal conditions of the Yangtze River. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2020;17(8):Article No. 2973.
Hossain MA, Zakir H, Kumar D, Alam M. Quality and metallic pollution level in surface waters of an urban industrialized city: A case study of Chittagong City, Bangladesh. Journal of Industrial Safety Engineering 2017;4:9-18.
Jacobson AD, Blum JD, Chamberlain CP, Poage MA, Sloan VF. Ca/Sr and Sr isotope systematics of a Himalayan glacial chronosequence: carbonate versus silicate weathering rates as a function of landscape surface age. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2002;66:13-27.
Jha BR, Gurung S, Khatri K, Gurung A, Thapa A, Mamta KC, et al. Patterns of diversity and conservation status of freshwater fishes in the glacial fed and rain fed rivers of Eastern Nepal. Environmental Biology of Fishes 2018;101:1295-305.
Jiang L, Yao Z, Liu Z, Wang R, Wu S. Hydrochemistry and its controlling factors of rivers in the source region of the Yangtze River on the Tibetan Plateau. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 2015;155:76-83.
Lacoul P, Freedman B. Physical and chemical limnology of 34 lentic waterbodies along a tropical‐to‐alpine altitudinal gradient in Nepal. International Review of Hydrobiology 2005;90(3):254-76.
Kafle BK, Sharma CM, Gurung S, Raut N, Kafle KR, Bhatta R, et al. Hydrogeochemistry of two major mid-hill lentic water bodies for irrigation of the Central Himalaya, Nepal. Environment and Natural Resources Journal 2023;21(2):171-85.
Kafle N, Dhungel LR, Acharya KK, Dhital MR. A Balanced geological cross-section along Kohalpur-Surkhet Area of Sub-Himalayan Range, Mid-Western Nepal. Journal of Science and Engineering 2019;6:1-8.
Kamidis N, Koutrakis E, Sapounidis A, Sylaios G. Impact of river damming on downstream hydrology and hydrochemistry: The case of lower Nestos River Catchment (NE. Greece). Water 2021;13(20):Article No. 2832.
Kannel PR, Kanel SR, Lee S, Lee Y-S, Gan TY. A review of public domain water quality models for simulating dissolved oxygen in rivers and streams. Environmental Modeling and Assessment 2011;16:183-204.
Khadka UR, Ramanathan AL. Hydrogeochemical analysis of Phewa Lake: A lesser Himalayan Lake in the Pokhara Valley, Nepal. Environment and Natural Resources Journal 2021;19:68-83.
Khadka UR, Ramanathan AL. Major ion composition and seasonal variation in the Lesser Himalayan lake: Case of Begnas Lake of the Pokhara Valley, Nepal. Arabian Journal of Geosciences 2012;6:4191-206.
Kono M. Gravity anomalies in east Nepal and their implications to the crustal structure of the Himalayas. Geophysical Journal International 1974;39:283-99.
Kuchment LS. The Hydrological Cycle and Human Impact on It. Water Resources Management, Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS); 2004. p. 40.
Kurdi M, Eslamkish T, Seyedali M, Ferdows MS. Water quality evaluation and trend analysis in the Qareh Sou Basin, Iran. Environmental Earth Sciences 2015;73:8167-75.
Lakra WS, Sarkar UK, Dubey VK, Sani R, Pandey A. River inter linking in India: Status, issues, prospects and implications on aquatic ecosystems and freshwater fish diversity. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 2011;21:463-79.
Lupker M, France-Lanord C, Galy V, Lavé J, Gaillardet J, Gajurel AP, et al. Predominant floodplain over mountain weathering of Himalayan sediments (Ganga basin). Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2012;84:410-32.
Machado FH, Gontijo ESJ, Beghelli FGDS, Fengler FH, de Medeiros GA, Filho AP, et al. Environmental impacts of inter-basin water transfer on water quality in the Jundiaí-Mirim River, south-east Brazil. International Journal of Environmental Impacts 2018;1(1):80-91.
Mallick J. Hydrogeochemical characteristics and assessment of water quality in the Al-Saad Lake, Abha Saudi Arabia. Applied Water Science 2017;7:2869-82.
Marak JDK, Sarma AK, Bhattacharjya RK. Assessing the impacts of interbasin water transfer reservoir on streamflow. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering 2020;25(10):Article No. 05020034.
Mikalsen T. Causes of increased total dissolved solids and conductivity levels in urban streams in Georgia. Proceedings of the 2005 Georgia Water Resources Conference; 2005 April 25-27; Athens, Georgia; 2005.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA). Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Wetlands and Water Synthesis. Washington, DC, USA: World Resources Institute; 2005.
Mishra Y, Babel MS, Nakamura T, Mishra B. Impacts of climate change on irrigation water management in the Babai River Basin, Nepal. Hydrology 2021;8(2):Article No. 85.
Mishra Y, Nakamura T, Babel MS, Ninsawat S, Ochi S. Impact of climate change on water resources of the Bheri River Basin, Nepal. Water 2018;10(2):Article No. 220.
Moyel MS, Hussain NA. Water quality assessment of the Shatt Al-Arab River, Southern Iraq. Journal of Coastal Life Medicine 2015;3:459-65.
Mukate SV, Panaskar DB, Wagh VM, Baker SJ. Understanding the influence of industrial and agricultural land uses on groundwater quality in semiarid region of Solapur, India. Environment, Development and Sustainability 2020;22:3207-38.
Nisha BK, Balakrishna K, Udayashankar HN, Manjunatha BR. Chemical weathering and carbon dioxide consumption in a small tropical river catchment, southwestern India. Aquatic Geochemistry 2021;27:173-206.
Novotny V. Diffuse pollution from agriculture: A worldwide outlook. Water Science and Technology 1999;39(3):1-13.
O'keeffe J, De Moor F. Changes in the physico‐chemistry and benthic invertebrates of the Great Fish River, South Africa, following an interbasin transfer of water. Regulated Rivers: Research and Management 1988;2(1):39-55.
Quade J, English N, DeCelles PG. Silicate versus carbonate weathering in the Himalaya: A comparison of the Arun and Seti River Watersheds. Chemical Geology 2003;202(3-4):275-96.
Pant RR, Zhang F, Rehman FU, Wang G, Ye M, Zeng C, et al. Spatiotemporal variations of hydrogeochemistry and its controlling factors in the Gandaki River Basin, Central Himalaya Nepal. Science of the Total Environment 2018;622-623:770-82.
Paudyal R, Kang S, Sharma CM, Tripathee L, Huang J, Rupakheti D, et al. Major ions and trace elements of two selected rivers near Everest region, Southern Himalayas, Nepal. Environmental Earth Sciences 2016;75:1-11.
Piper AM. A graphic procedure in the geochemical interpretation of water‐analyses. Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union 1944;25(6):914-28.
Pittock J, Meng J-h, Chapagain AK. Interbasin Water Transfers and Water Scarcity in a Changing World: A Solution or a Pipedream? Germany: World Wildlife Fund Germany; 2009. p. 61.
Potasznik A, Szymczyk S. Magnesium and calcium concentrations in the surface water and bottom deposits of a river-lake system. Journal of Elementology 2015;20(3):677-92.
Pringle CM, Freeman MC, Freeman BJ. Regional effects of hydrologic alterations on riverine macrobiota in the new world: Tropical-temperate comparisons. BioScience 2000; 50(9):807-23.
Qishlaqi A, Kordian S, Parsaie A. Hydrochemical evaluation of river water quality: A case study. Applied Water Science 2016;7:2337-42.
Qu B, Zhang Y, Kang S, Sillanpaa M. Water quality in the Tibetan Plateau: Major ions and trace elements in rivers of the “Water Tower of Asia”. Science of the Total Environment 2019; 649:571-81.
Reynolds B, Chapman P, French M, Jenkins A, Wheater H. Major, minor, and trace element chemistry of surface waters in the Everest region of Nepal. Proceedings and Reports-Intern Assoc Hydrological Sciences 1995;228:405-12.
Schmidt BV, Wang Z, Ren P, Guo C, Qin J, Cheng F, et al. A review of potential factors promoting fish movement in inter‐basin water transfers, with emergent patterns from a trait‐based risk analysis for a large‐scale project in china. Ecology of Freshwater Fish 2019;29:790-807.
Selge F, Matta E, Hinkelmann R, Gunkel G. Nutrient load concept-reservoir vs. bay impacts: A case study from a semi-arid watershed. Water Science and Technology 2016;74:1671-9.
Sharma CM, Kang S, Tripathee L, Paudyal R, Sillanpää M. Major ions and irrigation water quality assessment of the Nepalese Himalayan Rivers. Environment, Development and Sustainability 2020;23:2668-80.
Shakeri S, Abtahi A. Potassium fixation capacity of some highly calcareous soils as a function of clay minerals and alternately wetting-drying. Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science 2020;66(4):445-57.
Shrestha AB, Aryal R. Climate change in Nepal and its impact on Himalayan glaciers. Regional Environmental Change 2011; 11:65-77.
Singh R, Kayastha SP, Pandey VP. Water quality of Marshyangdi River, Nepal: An assessment using water quaity index (WQI). Journal of Institute of Science and Technology 2021;26:13-21.
Singh SK, Sarin MM, France-Lanord C. Chemical erosion in the eastern Himalaya: Major ion composition of the Brahmaputra and δ13C of dissolved inorganic carbon. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2005;69:3573-88.
Singh VB, Ramanathan A, Mandal A. Hydrogeochemistry of high-altitude lake: A case study of the Chandra Tal, Western Himalaya, India. Arabian Journal of Geosciences 2016;9:1-9.
Skowron P, Skowrońska M, Bronowicka-Mielniczuk U, Filipek T, Igras J, Kowalczyk-Juśko A, et al. Anthropogenic sources of potassium in surface water: The case study of the Bystrzyca River catchment, Poland. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 2018;265:454-60.
Snaddon CD, Davies BR, Wishart M, Meador M, Thoms M. A Global Overview of Inter-Basin Water Transfer Schemes, with an Appraisal of their Ecological, Socio-Economic and Socio-Political Implications, and Recommendations for their Management. Water Research Commission Report No TT120/00 Pretoria: Water Research Commission; 1999.
Snaddon CD, Wishart M, Davies BR. Some implications of inter-basin water transfers for river ecosystem functioning and water resources management in southern Africa. Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 1998;1(2):159-82.
Stockner J, Rydin E, Hyenstrand P. Cultural oligotrophication: causes and consequences for fisheries resources. Fisheries 2000;25(5):7-14.
Szatten D, Habel M, Babiński Z. Influence of hydrologic alteration on sediment, dissolved load and nutrient downstream transfer continuity in a river: Example lower Brda River Cascade Dams (Poland). Resources 2021;10(7):Article No. 70.
Tamrakar NK, Shrestha MB. Relationship between fluvial clastic sediment and source rock abundance in Rapti River Basin of Central Nepal Himalayas. Boletin de Geologia 2008;30:63-75.
Tian J, Liu D, Guo S, Pan Z, Hong X. Impacts of inter-basin water transfer projects on optimal water resources allocation in the Hanjiang River Basin, China. Sustainability 2019;11(7): Article No. 2044.
Tickner D, Parker H, Moncrieff CR, Oates NEM, Ludi E, Acreman M. Managing rivers for multiple benefits: A coherent approach to research, policy and planning. Frontiers in Environmental Science 2017;5:Article No. 4.
Tiwari AK, Singh AK, Phartiyal B, Sharma A. Hydrogeochemical characteristics of the Indus River water system. Chemistry and Ecology 2021;37:780-808.
Tsering T, Abdel Wahed MSM, Iftekhar S, Sillanpää M. Major ion chemistry of the Teesta River in Sikkim Himalaya, India: Chemical weathering and assessment of water quality. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies 2019;24:Article No. 100612.
Vasanthavigar M, Srinivasamoorthy K, Prasanna MV. Identification of groundwater contamination zones and its sources by using multivariate statistical approach in Thirumanimuthar sub-basin, Tamil Nadu, India. Environmental Earth Sciences 2013; 68:1783-95.
Vinnarasi F, Srinivasamoorthy K, Saravanan K, Gopinath S, Prakash R, Ponnumani G, et al. Chemical weathering and atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) consumption in Shanmuganadhi, South India: Evidences from groundwater geochemistry. Environmental Geochemistry and Health 2021;43:771-90.
Wang J, Soininen J, Heino J. Ecological indicators for aquatic biodiversity, ecosystem functions, human activities and climate change. Ecological Indicators 2021;132:Article No. 108250.
Wanty RB, Verplanck PL, San Juan CA, Church SE, Schmidt TS, Fey DL, et al. Geochemistry of surface water in alpine catchments in central Colorado, USA: Resolving host-rock effects at different spatial scales. Applied Geochemistry 2009;24:600-10.
Water UN. Climate Change and Water: UN-Water Policy Brief. Geneva, Switzerland: Water UN; 2019.
Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS). Water Resources of Nepal in the Context of Climate Change. Kathmandu, Nepal: WECS and Government of Nepal; 2011.
Wetzel RG. Limnology: Lake and River Ecosystems. 3rd ed. Academic Press; 2001.
World Wildlife Fund (WWF). Valuing Rivers: How the Diverse Benefits of Healthy Rivers Underpin Economies. WWF; 2018.
Yang N, Zhang C, Wang L, Li Y, Zhang W, Niu L, et al. Nitrogen cycling processes and the role of multi-trophic microbiota in dam-induced river-reservoir systems. Water Research 2021; 206:Article No. 117730.
Zaw K, Meffre S, Lai CK, Burrett C, Santosh M, Graham I, et al. Tectonics and metallogeny of mainland Southeast Asia: A review and contribution. Gondwana Research 2014;26:5-30.
Zhu M, Kuang X, Feng Y, Hao Y, He Q, Zhou H, et al. Hydrochemistry of the Lhasa River, Tibetan Plateau: Spatiotemporal variations of major ions compositions and controlling factors using multivariate statistical approaches. Water 2021;13:Article No. 3660.
Zhuang W. Eco-environmental impact of inter-basin water transfer projects: A review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 2016;23(13):12867-79.