Energy Use and Consumption Patterns of Maize Cultivation - A Case Study in Thailand 10.32526/ennrj/19/202100086
Article Sidebar
Published:
Sep 21, 2021
Keywords:
Energy analysis Net energy value Energy transfer efficiency Maize cultivation Thailand
Main Article Content
Abstract
This study explored energy inputs and consumption patterns to determine energy and economical indices for maize cultivation in Thailand. To assess the energy performance of four used cropping systems, namely, highland cultivation in wet season (HLWS), highland cultivation in dry season (HLDS), plains cultivation in wet season (PLWS), and plains cultivation in dry season (PLDS), data from energy consumed and produced show Net Energy Value (NEV) gains of +77.0, +106.5, +191.6, and +228.5 GJ/ha, respectively. Positive signs indicate that the required energy was less than energy produced which reveals sustainability. Use of fertilizer accounted for the major input energy in all systems, followed by fossil fuels, human labor and seeds. A cost performance analysis demonstrated PLDS production exhibited the highest profit earnings (1,365.2 USD/ha). To establish an alternative way to reduce the amount of energy consumed together with increased profit returns to farmers, the renewable energy from waste manure was used to replace dependence on chemical fertilizers. Scenarios using manure from cows, chickens, and farmyards were considered. Results showed that the use of farmyard manure created greater amounts of energy efficiency and economical return rates. Moreover, the benefits increased with increased amounts of organic material applied.
Article Details
How to Cite
Thongmai, S. ., Neamhom, T. ., Patthanaissaranukool, W. ., & Polprasert, S. . (2021). Energy Use and Consumption Patterns of Maize Cultivation - A Case Study in Thailand: 10.32526/ennrj/19/202100086. Environment and Natural Resources Journal, 19(6), 435–448. Retrieved from https://ph02.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/ennrj/article/view/244769
Section
Original Research Articles
Published articles are under the copyright of the Environment and Natural Resources Journal effective when the article is accepted for publication thus granting Environment and Natural Resources Journal all rights for the work so that both parties may be protected from the consequences of unauthorized use. Partially or totally publication of an article elsewhere is possible only after the consent from the editors.
References
1. Akdemir S, Akcaoz H, Kizilay H. An analysis of energy use and input costs for maize production in Turkey. Journal of Food, Agriculture and Environment 2012;10(2):473-9.
2. Banaeian N, Zangeneh M. Study on energy efficiency in corn production of Iran. Energy 2011;36(8):5394-402.
3. Canakci M, Akinci I. Energy use pattern analyses of greenhouse vegetable production. Energy 2006;31(8-9):1243-56.
4. Chilur R, Yadachi S. Energy Audit of Maize Production System of Selected Villages of North Karnataka, India. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences 2017;6(8):3564-71.
5. Dai D, Hu Z, Pu G, Li H, Wang C. Energy efficiency and potentials of cassava fuel ethanol in Guangxi region of China. Energy Conversion and Management 2006;47(13-14):1686-99.
6. Dalgaard T, Halberg N, Porter JR. A model for fossil energy use in Danish agriculture used to compare organic and conventional farming. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 2001; 87(1):51-65.
7. Demirbas A. Political, economic and environmental impacts of biofuels: A review. Applied Energy 2009;86(Supplement 1):108-17.
8. Demircan V, Ekinci K, Keener HM, Akbolat D, Ekinci C. Energy and economic analysis of sweet cherry production in Turkey: A case study from Isparta province. Energy Conversion and Management 2006;47(13-14):1761-9.
9. Ekasingh B, Gypmantasiri P, Thong-ngam K, Grudloyma P. Maize in Thailand: Production Systems, Constraints, and Research Priorities. Mexico: CIMMYT; 2004.
10. Elsoragaby S, Yahya A, Mahadi MR, Nawi NM, Mairghany M. Analysis of energy use and greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) of transplanting and broadcast seeding wetland rice cultivation. Energy 2019a;189:116160.
11. Elsoragaby S, Yahya A, Mahadi MR, Nawi NM, Mairghany M. Energy utilization in major crop cultivation. Energy 2019b; 173:1285-303.
12. Esengun K, Erdal G, Gündüz O, Erdal H. An economic analysis and energy use in stake-tomato production in Tokat province of Turkey. Renewable Energy 2007;32(11):1873-81.
13. European Commission. Database for the physico-chemical composition of (treated) lignocellulosic biomass, micro- and macroalgae, various feedstocks for biogas production and biochar [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2021 Jan 19]. Available from: https://phyllis.nl/.
14. Food and Agricuture Organization of the United Nation (FAO). “Energy-smart” food for people and climate: issue paper [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2021 Mar 6]. Available from: http://www.fao.org/sustainable-food-value-chains/library/ details/en/c/266092/.
15. Food and Agricuture Organization of the United Nation (FAO). Food Energy-Methods of Analysis and Conversion Factors. Rome: FAO; 2003.
16. Felten D, Fröba N, Fries J, Emmerling C. Energy balances and greenhouse gas-mitigation potentials of bioenergy cropping systems (Miscanthus, rapeseed, and maize) based on farming conditions in Western Germany. Renewable Energy 2013; 55:160-74.
17. Ferreira TA, Ferreira SC, Barbosa JA, Volpato CES, Ferreira RC, da Silva MJ, Barbosa LM. Energy balance of irrigated maize silage. Ciencia Rural 2018;48(5):4-10.
18. Gong F, Wu X, Zhang H, Chen Y, Wang W. Making better maize plants for sustainable grain production in a changing climate. Frontiers in Plant Science 2015;6:1-6.
19. Grassini P, Cassman KG. High-yield maize with large net energy yield and small global warming intensity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2012;109(10):4021.
20. Hatirli SA, Ozkan B, Fert C. Energy inputs and crop yield relationship in greenhouse tomato production. Renewable Energy 2006;31(4):427-38.
21. Jaroenkietkajorn U, Gheewala SH. Interlinkage between water-energy-food for oil palm cultivation in Thailand. Sustainable Production and Consumption 2020;22:205-17.
22. Jiang Z, Lin J, Liu Y, Mo C, Yang J. Double paddy rice conversion to maize-paddy rice reduces carbon footprint and enhances net carbon sink. Journal of Cleaner Production 2020;258:120643.
23. Gajaseni J. Energy analysis of wetland rice systems in Thailand. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 1995;52(2-3):173-8.
24. Kaur N, Vashist KK, Brar AS. Energy and productivity analysis of maize based crop sequences compared to rice-wheat system under different moisture regimes. Energy 2021;216:119286.
25. Khatiwada D, Silveira S. Net energy balance of molasses based ethanol: The case of Nepal. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2009;13(9):2515-24.
26. Khonpikul S, Jakrawatana N, Gheewala SH, Mungkalasiri J, Janrungautai J. Material flow analysis of maize supply chain in Thailand. Journal of Sustainable Energy and Environment 2017;8:87-9.
27. Kosemani BS, Bamgboye AI. Energy input-output analysis of rice production in Nigeria. Energy 2020:207:118258.
28. Król-Badziak A, Pishgar-Komleh SH, Rozakis S, Księżak J. Environmental and socio-economic performance of different tillage systems in maize grain production: Application of life cycle assessment and multi-criteria decision making. Journal of Cleaner Production 2021;278:123792.
29. Kusek G, Ozturk HH, Akdemir S. An assessment of energy use of different cultivation methods for sustainable rapeseed production. Journal of Cleaner Production 2016;112: 2772-83.
30. Lal B, Gautam P, Nayak AK, Panda BB, Bihari P, Tripathi R, et al. Energy and carbon budgeting of tillage for environmentally clean and resilient soil health of rice-maize cropping system. Journal of Cleaner Production 2019;226:815-30.
31. Lorzadeh SH, Mahdavidamghani A, Enayatgholizadeh MR, Yousefi M. Energy input-output analysis for maize production systems in Shooshtar, Iran. Advances in Environmental Biology 2011;5(11):3641-4.
32. Manzone M, Calvo A. Energy and CO2 analysis of poplar and maize crops for biomass production in north Italy. Renewable Energy 2016;86:675-81.
33. Masters GM. Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science. 2nd ed. New Jersey, USA: Prentice-Hall; 1998.
34. Multiple Cropping Center (MCC). Maize Research in Thailand Past Impacts and Future Prospects. Chiang Mai, Thailand: MCC; 1999.
35. Memon SQ, Amjad N, Dayo RH, Jarwar G. Energy requirement and energy efficiency for production of maize crop. European Academic Research 2015;2(2):14609-14.
36. Ministry of Agricultural and Cooperative. Soil management and nutrients in rice farming [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2021 Jan 22]. Available from: http://www.ricethailand.go.th/rkb3/title-index.php-file=content.php&id=005.htm.
37. Mohammadi A, Rafiee S, Mohtasebi SS, Rafiee H. Energy inputs-yield relationship and cost analysis of kiwifruit production in Iran. Renewable Energy 2010;35(5):1071-5.
38. Mohammadi A, Tabatabaeefar A, Shahin S, Rafiee S, Keyhani A. Energy use and economical analysis of potato production in Iran a case study: Ardabil province. Energy Conversion and Management 2008;49(12):3566-70.
39. Neamhom T, Polprasert C, Englande AJ. Ways that sugarcane industry can help reduce carbon emissions in Thailand. Journal of Cleaner Production 2016;131:561-71.
40. Nemecek T, Dubois D, Huguenin-Elie O, Gaillard G. Life cycle assessment of Swiss farming systems: I. Integrated and organic farming. Agricultural Systems 2011;104(3):217-32.
41. Nguyen TLT, Gheewala SH, Garivait S. Full chain energy analysis of fuel ethanol from cane molasses in Thailand. Applied Energy 2008;85(8):722-34.
42. Nutongkaew P, Waewsak J, Riansut W, Kongruang C, Gagnon Y. The potential of palm oil production as a pathway to energy security in Thailand. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 2019;35:189-203.
43. Office of Agricultural Economics (OAE). Land utilization by provience in 2019 [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2021 Mar 6]. Available from: http://www.oae.go.th/assets/portals/1/files/ socio/LandUtilization2562.pdf.
44. Office of Agricultural Economics (OAE). Maize: plantation area, cultivation area, yields, and product by province for 2019/2020 [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2021 Mar 4]. Available from: http://www.oae.go.th.
45. Ozkan B, Akcaoz H, Karadeniz F. Energy requirement and economic analysis of citrus production in Turkey. Energy Conversion and Management 2004;45(11-12):1821-30.
46. Patthanaissaranukool W, Polprasert C. Reducing carbon emissions from soybean cultivation to oil production in Thailand. Journal of Cleaner Production 2016;131:170-8.
47. Patthanaissaranukool W, Polprasert C, Englande AJ. Potential reduction of carbon emissions from Crude Palm Oil production based on energy and carbon balances. Applied Energy 2013;102:710-7.
48. Polprasert C, Chaiyachet Y. Biological potential: A concept for sustainable development based on a carbon balance model. Proceedings of the 1st GMSARN International Conference on Sustainable Development: Challenges and Opportunities for GMS; 2007 Dec 12-14; The Ambassador City Jomtien Hotel, Pattaya: Thailand; 2007.
49. Prasara-A J, Gheewala SH. An assessment of social sustainability of sugarcane and cassava cultivation in Thailand. Sustainable Production and Consumption 2021;27:372-82.
50. Qi JY, Yang ST, Xue JF, Liu CX, Du TQ, Hao JP, et al. Response of carbon footprint of spring maize production to cultivation patterns in the Loess Plateau, China. Journal of Cleaner Production 2018;187:525-36.
51. Romanelli TL, Milan M. Energy balance methodology and modeling of supplementary forage production for cattle in Brazil. Scientia Agricola 2005;62(1):1-7.
52. Šarauskis E, Buragiene S, Masilionyte L, Romaneckas K, Avižienyte D, Sakalauskas A. Energy balance, costs and CO2 analysis of tillage technologies in maize cultivation. Energy 2014;69:227-35.
53. Silalertruksa T, Gheewala SH. Land-water-energy nexus of sugarcane production in Thailand. Journal of Cleaner Production 2018;182:521-8.
54. Singh P, Singh G, Sodhi GPS. Energy auditing and optimization approach for improving energy efficiency of rice cultivation in south-western Punjab, India. Energy 2019;174:269-79.
55. Soni P, Sinha R, Perret SR. Energy use and efficiency in selected rice-based cropping systems of the Middle-Indo Gangetic Plains in India. Energy Reports 2018;4:554-64.
56. Supasri T, Itsubo N, Gheewala SH, Sampattagul S. Life cycle assessment of maize cultivation and biomass utilization in northern Thailand. Scientific Reports 2020;10(1): 1-13.
57. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University. Organic farming: Organic inputs and techniques [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2021 Jan 22]. Available from: https://agritech.tnau.ac.in/org_farm/orgfarm _manure.html.
58. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). 21 Issues for the 21st Century - Results of the UNEP Foresight Process on Emerging Environmental Issues. Environmental Development (Vol. 2) [Internet]. 2012 [cited 2016 Jun 20]. Available from: http://www.unep.org/pdf/Foresight_Report-21_Issues_for_ the_21st_Century.pdf.
59. van Dijk M, Meijerink GW. A review of global food security scenario and assessment studies: Results, gaps and research priorities. Global Food Security 2014;3(3-4):227-38.
60. Yamane T. Statistics: An Introductory Analysis. 2nd ed. New York, USA: Harper and Row; 1967.
61. Yousefi M, Damghani AM, Khoramivafa M. Energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions and assessment of sustainability index in corn agroecosystems of Iran. Science of the Total Environment 2014;493:330-5.
62. Zhong F, Jiang D, Zhao Q, Guo A, Ullah A, Yang X, et al. Eco-efficiency of oasis seed maize production in an arid region, Northwest China. Journal of Cleaner Production 2020; 268:122220.
2. Banaeian N, Zangeneh M. Study on energy efficiency in corn production of Iran. Energy 2011;36(8):5394-402.
3. Canakci M, Akinci I. Energy use pattern analyses of greenhouse vegetable production. Energy 2006;31(8-9):1243-56.
4. Chilur R, Yadachi S. Energy Audit of Maize Production System of Selected Villages of North Karnataka, India. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences 2017;6(8):3564-71.
5. Dai D, Hu Z, Pu G, Li H, Wang C. Energy efficiency and potentials of cassava fuel ethanol in Guangxi region of China. Energy Conversion and Management 2006;47(13-14):1686-99.
6. Dalgaard T, Halberg N, Porter JR. A model for fossil energy use in Danish agriculture used to compare organic and conventional farming. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 2001; 87(1):51-65.
7. Demirbas A. Political, economic and environmental impacts of biofuels: A review. Applied Energy 2009;86(Supplement 1):108-17.
8. Demircan V, Ekinci K, Keener HM, Akbolat D, Ekinci C. Energy and economic analysis of sweet cherry production in Turkey: A case study from Isparta province. Energy Conversion and Management 2006;47(13-14):1761-9.
9. Ekasingh B, Gypmantasiri P, Thong-ngam K, Grudloyma P. Maize in Thailand: Production Systems, Constraints, and Research Priorities. Mexico: CIMMYT; 2004.
10. Elsoragaby S, Yahya A, Mahadi MR, Nawi NM, Mairghany M. Analysis of energy use and greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) of transplanting and broadcast seeding wetland rice cultivation. Energy 2019a;189:116160.
11. Elsoragaby S, Yahya A, Mahadi MR, Nawi NM, Mairghany M. Energy utilization in major crop cultivation. Energy 2019b; 173:1285-303.
12. Esengun K, Erdal G, Gündüz O, Erdal H. An economic analysis and energy use in stake-tomato production in Tokat province of Turkey. Renewable Energy 2007;32(11):1873-81.
13. European Commission. Database for the physico-chemical composition of (treated) lignocellulosic biomass, micro- and macroalgae, various feedstocks for biogas production and biochar [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2021 Jan 19]. Available from: https://phyllis.nl/.
14. Food and Agricuture Organization of the United Nation (FAO). “Energy-smart” food for people and climate: issue paper [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2021 Mar 6]. Available from: http://www.fao.org/sustainable-food-value-chains/library/ details/en/c/266092/.
15. Food and Agricuture Organization of the United Nation (FAO). Food Energy-Methods of Analysis and Conversion Factors. Rome: FAO; 2003.
16. Felten D, Fröba N, Fries J, Emmerling C. Energy balances and greenhouse gas-mitigation potentials of bioenergy cropping systems (Miscanthus, rapeseed, and maize) based on farming conditions in Western Germany. Renewable Energy 2013; 55:160-74.
17. Ferreira TA, Ferreira SC, Barbosa JA, Volpato CES, Ferreira RC, da Silva MJ, Barbosa LM. Energy balance of irrigated maize silage. Ciencia Rural 2018;48(5):4-10.
18. Gong F, Wu X, Zhang H, Chen Y, Wang W. Making better maize plants for sustainable grain production in a changing climate. Frontiers in Plant Science 2015;6:1-6.
19. Grassini P, Cassman KG. High-yield maize with large net energy yield and small global warming intensity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2012;109(10):4021.
20. Hatirli SA, Ozkan B, Fert C. Energy inputs and crop yield relationship in greenhouse tomato production. Renewable Energy 2006;31(4):427-38.
21. Jaroenkietkajorn U, Gheewala SH. Interlinkage between water-energy-food for oil palm cultivation in Thailand. Sustainable Production and Consumption 2020;22:205-17.
22. Jiang Z, Lin J, Liu Y, Mo C, Yang J. Double paddy rice conversion to maize-paddy rice reduces carbon footprint and enhances net carbon sink. Journal of Cleaner Production 2020;258:120643.
23. Gajaseni J. Energy analysis of wetland rice systems in Thailand. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 1995;52(2-3):173-8.
24. Kaur N, Vashist KK, Brar AS. Energy and productivity analysis of maize based crop sequences compared to rice-wheat system under different moisture regimes. Energy 2021;216:119286.
25. Khatiwada D, Silveira S. Net energy balance of molasses based ethanol: The case of Nepal. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2009;13(9):2515-24.
26. Khonpikul S, Jakrawatana N, Gheewala SH, Mungkalasiri J, Janrungautai J. Material flow analysis of maize supply chain in Thailand. Journal of Sustainable Energy and Environment 2017;8:87-9.
27. Kosemani BS, Bamgboye AI. Energy input-output analysis of rice production in Nigeria. Energy 2020:207:118258.
28. Król-Badziak A, Pishgar-Komleh SH, Rozakis S, Księżak J. Environmental and socio-economic performance of different tillage systems in maize grain production: Application of life cycle assessment and multi-criteria decision making. Journal of Cleaner Production 2021;278:123792.
29. Kusek G, Ozturk HH, Akdemir S. An assessment of energy use of different cultivation methods for sustainable rapeseed production. Journal of Cleaner Production 2016;112: 2772-83.
30. Lal B, Gautam P, Nayak AK, Panda BB, Bihari P, Tripathi R, et al. Energy and carbon budgeting of tillage for environmentally clean and resilient soil health of rice-maize cropping system. Journal of Cleaner Production 2019;226:815-30.
31. Lorzadeh SH, Mahdavidamghani A, Enayatgholizadeh MR, Yousefi M. Energy input-output analysis for maize production systems in Shooshtar, Iran. Advances in Environmental Biology 2011;5(11):3641-4.
32. Manzone M, Calvo A. Energy and CO2 analysis of poplar and maize crops for biomass production in north Italy. Renewable Energy 2016;86:675-81.
33. Masters GM. Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science. 2nd ed. New Jersey, USA: Prentice-Hall; 1998.
34. Multiple Cropping Center (MCC). Maize Research in Thailand Past Impacts and Future Prospects. Chiang Mai, Thailand: MCC; 1999.
35. Memon SQ, Amjad N, Dayo RH, Jarwar G. Energy requirement and energy efficiency for production of maize crop. European Academic Research 2015;2(2):14609-14.
36. Ministry of Agricultural and Cooperative. Soil management and nutrients in rice farming [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2021 Jan 22]. Available from: http://www.ricethailand.go.th/rkb3/title-index.php-file=content.php&id=005.htm.
37. Mohammadi A, Rafiee S, Mohtasebi SS, Rafiee H. Energy inputs-yield relationship and cost analysis of kiwifruit production in Iran. Renewable Energy 2010;35(5):1071-5.
38. Mohammadi A, Tabatabaeefar A, Shahin S, Rafiee S, Keyhani A. Energy use and economical analysis of potato production in Iran a case study: Ardabil province. Energy Conversion and Management 2008;49(12):3566-70.
39. Neamhom T, Polprasert C, Englande AJ. Ways that sugarcane industry can help reduce carbon emissions in Thailand. Journal of Cleaner Production 2016;131:561-71.
40. Nemecek T, Dubois D, Huguenin-Elie O, Gaillard G. Life cycle assessment of Swiss farming systems: I. Integrated and organic farming. Agricultural Systems 2011;104(3):217-32.
41. Nguyen TLT, Gheewala SH, Garivait S. Full chain energy analysis of fuel ethanol from cane molasses in Thailand. Applied Energy 2008;85(8):722-34.
42. Nutongkaew P, Waewsak J, Riansut W, Kongruang C, Gagnon Y. The potential of palm oil production as a pathway to energy security in Thailand. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 2019;35:189-203.
43. Office of Agricultural Economics (OAE). Land utilization by provience in 2019 [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2021 Mar 6]. Available from: http://www.oae.go.th/assets/portals/1/files/ socio/LandUtilization2562.pdf.
44. Office of Agricultural Economics (OAE). Maize: plantation area, cultivation area, yields, and product by province for 2019/2020 [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2021 Mar 4]. Available from: http://www.oae.go.th.
45. Ozkan B, Akcaoz H, Karadeniz F. Energy requirement and economic analysis of citrus production in Turkey. Energy Conversion and Management 2004;45(11-12):1821-30.
46. Patthanaissaranukool W, Polprasert C. Reducing carbon emissions from soybean cultivation to oil production in Thailand. Journal of Cleaner Production 2016;131:170-8.
47. Patthanaissaranukool W, Polprasert C, Englande AJ. Potential reduction of carbon emissions from Crude Palm Oil production based on energy and carbon balances. Applied Energy 2013;102:710-7.
48. Polprasert C, Chaiyachet Y. Biological potential: A concept for sustainable development based on a carbon balance model. Proceedings of the 1st GMSARN International Conference on Sustainable Development: Challenges and Opportunities for GMS; 2007 Dec 12-14; The Ambassador City Jomtien Hotel, Pattaya: Thailand; 2007.
49. Prasara-A J, Gheewala SH. An assessment of social sustainability of sugarcane and cassava cultivation in Thailand. Sustainable Production and Consumption 2021;27:372-82.
50. Qi JY, Yang ST, Xue JF, Liu CX, Du TQ, Hao JP, et al. Response of carbon footprint of spring maize production to cultivation patterns in the Loess Plateau, China. Journal of Cleaner Production 2018;187:525-36.
51. Romanelli TL, Milan M. Energy balance methodology and modeling of supplementary forage production for cattle in Brazil. Scientia Agricola 2005;62(1):1-7.
52. Šarauskis E, Buragiene S, Masilionyte L, Romaneckas K, Avižienyte D, Sakalauskas A. Energy balance, costs and CO2 analysis of tillage technologies in maize cultivation. Energy 2014;69:227-35.
53. Silalertruksa T, Gheewala SH. Land-water-energy nexus of sugarcane production in Thailand. Journal of Cleaner Production 2018;182:521-8.
54. Singh P, Singh G, Sodhi GPS. Energy auditing and optimization approach for improving energy efficiency of rice cultivation in south-western Punjab, India. Energy 2019;174:269-79.
55. Soni P, Sinha R, Perret SR. Energy use and efficiency in selected rice-based cropping systems of the Middle-Indo Gangetic Plains in India. Energy Reports 2018;4:554-64.
56. Supasri T, Itsubo N, Gheewala SH, Sampattagul S. Life cycle assessment of maize cultivation and biomass utilization in northern Thailand. Scientific Reports 2020;10(1): 1-13.
57. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University. Organic farming: Organic inputs and techniques [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2021 Jan 22]. Available from: https://agritech.tnau.ac.in/org_farm/orgfarm _manure.html.
58. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). 21 Issues for the 21st Century - Results of the UNEP Foresight Process on Emerging Environmental Issues. Environmental Development (Vol. 2) [Internet]. 2012 [cited 2016 Jun 20]. Available from: http://www.unep.org/pdf/Foresight_Report-21_Issues_for_ the_21st_Century.pdf.
59. van Dijk M, Meijerink GW. A review of global food security scenario and assessment studies: Results, gaps and research priorities. Global Food Security 2014;3(3-4):227-38.
60. Yamane T. Statistics: An Introductory Analysis. 2nd ed. New York, USA: Harper and Row; 1967.
61. Yousefi M, Damghani AM, Khoramivafa M. Energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions and assessment of sustainability index in corn agroecosystems of Iran. Science of the Total Environment 2014;493:330-5.
62. Zhong F, Jiang D, Zhao Q, Guo A, Ullah A, Yang X, et al. Eco-efficiency of oasis seed maize production in an arid region, Northwest China. Journal of Cleaner Production 2020; 268:122220.