Resuspension of Road Dust from Electric Vehicles under Steady and Real-world Driving Tests
Article Sidebar
Main Article Content
Abstract
Internal combustion engines are considered as one of the most important major causes of air pollution. Many countries including Thailand pay attention to this problem and support electric vehicle usages for emission reductions. However, past literatures indicated that electric vehicles also emitted Particulate Matter (PM) via non-exhaust emissions. These included tyre wear, brake wear, road surface wear, and resuspension of road dust. Weight and speed of vehicles were found out as the major variable on this non-exhaust PM emissions. In the current study, non-exhaust PM emissions from an electric vehicle were measured by installing a real-time PM concentration measuring device in the back of the front left wheel while the vehicle was moving. There were three types of tests: constant speed test, ISO 21994:2007 standard brake test, and real-world driving cycle test. In each type of tests, payloads were varied. From the experimental data in all tests, it has been clearly seen that increasing payloads on the tested vehicle resulting in changes in PM emissions. With the same payload, the amounts PM10 emissions increase when the vehicle speeds are varied from 40 to 80 km/hr. However, varying speed do not affect the amounts of PM1 and PM2.5 at the speed of 60 and 80 km/hr. Only the increase of PM10 emissions is observed. In ISO 21994:2007 standard brake test, additional payload of 200 kg results in almost half of PM emissions increase. In the real-world driving test, braking sequences (vehicle was accelerated and stopped) tremendously affects the amount of PM emissions. In addition, the condition of road surface also impacts the amounts of resuspended PM emissions.
Article Details
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
ลิขสิทธ์ ของมหาวิทยาลัยเทคโนโลยีราชมงคลพระนครReferences
C. D. B. B. Guerreiro, F. Leeuw, V. Foltescu, J. Horalek. (2014, Jan) Air Quality in Europe - 2014 Report. European Environmental Agency Copenhagen. [Online] Available: http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/air-quality-in-europe-2014.
A. Valavanidis, K. Fiotakis, T. Vlachogianni, “Airborne particulate matter and human health: toxicological assessment and importance of size and composition of particles for oxidative damage and carcinogenic mechanisms,” Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part C, vol. 26, no. 4, pp. 339-362, 2008.
N. Li, M. Hao, R. F. Phalen, W. C. Hinds, A. E. Nel, “Particulate air pollutants and asthma: a paradigm for the role of oxidative stress in PM-induced adverse health effects,” Clinical Immunology, vol. 109, no. 3, pp. 250-265, Dec. 2003.
U. Gehring, R. Beelen, M. Eeftens, G. Hoek, K. de Hoogh, J. C. de Jongste, M. Keuken, G. H. Koppelman, K. Meliefste, M. Oldenwening, D. S. Postma, L. V. Rossem, M. Wang, H. A. Smit, B. Brunekreef, “Particulate matter composition and respiratory health: the PIAMA Birth Cohort Study,” Epidemiology, vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 300-309, Feb. 2015.
World Health Organisation. (2015, Aug 3). Burden of Disease from Ambient Air Pollution for 2012. [Online]. Geneva. Available: http://www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/databases/AAP_BoD_results_March2014.pdf.
J. D. Sacks, L. W. Stanek, T. J. Luben, D. O. Johns, B. J. Buckley, J. S. Brown, M. Ross, “Particulate mattereinduced health effects: who is susceptible?,” Environ Health Perspect, vol. 119, no. 4, pp. 446-454, Apr. 2011.
T. Murrells, Y. Pang. (2013, Feb 6). Emission Factors for Alternative Vehicle Technologies. [Online]. Available: http://naei.defra.gov.uk/resources/NAEI_Emisison_factors_for_alternative_vehicle_technologies_Final_Feb_13.pdf.
A. Soret, M. Guevara and J. M. Baldasano, “The potential impacts of electric vehicles on air quality in the urban areas of Barcelona and Madrid (Spain),” Atmospheric Environment, vol. 99, pp. 51-63, Dec. 2014.
J. J. P. Kuenen, A. J. H. Visschedijk, M. Jozwicka and H. A. C. Denier van der Gon, “TNO-MACC_II emission inventory: a multi-year (2003–2009) consistent high-resolution European emission inventory for air quality modelling,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, vol. 14, no. 20, pp. 10963-10976, 2014.
P G Boulter, “A Review of Emission Factors and Models for Road Vehicle Nonexhaust Particulate Matter,” TRL Project Report PPR065 for DEFRA, 2005.
A. Thorpe and R. M. Harrison, “Sources and properties of non-exhaust particulate matter from road traffic: A review,” Science of The Total Environment, vol. 400, no. 1, pp. 270-282, Aug. 2008.
M. Mathissen, V. Scheer, R. Vogt, T. Benter, “Investigation on the potential generation of ultrafine particles from the tire-road interface,” Atmospheric Environment, vol. 45, no. 34, pp. 6172-6179, Nov. 2011.
Victor R.J.H. Timmers and Peter A.J. Achten, “Non-Exhaust PM Emissions from Electric Vehicles,” Atmospheric Environment, vol. 134, pp. 10-17, Jun. 2016.
Sanders, P.G., Xu, N., Dalka, T.M., Maricq, M.M., “Airborne brake wear debris: size dis-tributions, composition, and a comparison of dynamometer and vehicle tests,” Environmental Science Technology, vol. 37, no. 18, pp. 4060-4069, 2003.
Hjortenkrans, D.S.T., Bergbäck, B.G., Häggerud, A.V., “Metal emissions from brake linings and tires: case studies of Stockholm, Sweden 1995/1998 and 2005,” Environmental Science Technology, vol. 41, no.15, pp. 5224–5230, 2007.
F. Amato, M. Pandolfi, M. Viana, X. Querol, A. Alastuey, T. Moreno, “Spatial andchemical patterns of PM10in road dust deposited in urban environment,” Atmospheric Environment, vol. 43, no. 9, pp. 1650–1659, 2009.
F. Amato, M. Pandolfi, T. Moreno, M. Furger, J. Pey, A. Alastuey, N. Bukowiecki, A.S.H. Prevot, U. Baltensperger, X. Querol, “Sources and variability of inhalable roaddust particles in three European cities,” Atmospheric Environment, vol. 45, pp. 6777-6787, 2011.
Gietl, J.K., Lawrence, R., Thorpe, A.J., Harrison, R.M., “Identification of brake wear par-ticles and derivation of a quantitative tracer for brake dust at a major roa,” Atmospheric Environment, vol. 44, no. 2, pp. 141–146, 2010.
Apeagyei, E., Bank, M.S., Spengler, J.D., “Distribution of heavy metals in road dustalong an urban-rural gradient in Massachusetts,” Atmospheric Environment, vol. 45, no. 13, pp. 2310–2323, 2011.
Harrison, R.M., Jones, A.M., Gietl, J., Yin, J., Green, D.C., “Estimation of the contribu-tions of brake dust, tire wear, and resuspension to non-exhaust traffic particles de-rived from atmospheric measurements,” Environmental Science & Technology, vol. 46, no. 12, pp. 6523–6529, 2012.
Hulskotte, J.H.J., Roskam, G.D., Denier van der Gon, H.A.C., “Elemental composition of current automotive braking materials and derived air emission factors,” Atmospheric Environment, vol. 99, pp. 436–445, Dec. 2014.
A. Simons, “Road transport: new life cycle inventories for fossil-fuelled passenger cars and non-exhaust emissions in Ecoinvent v3, The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, vol. 21, no. 9, pp. 1299-1313, 2013.
E. Wirojsakunchai, C. Plengsa-Ard, and W. Songkitti, “Effects of Payload on Non-exhaust PM Emissions from Hybrid Electric Vehicle during Braking Sequences,” IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 2022, vol. 1013, no. 1, pp. 012002.
Noh, S.-Y., K.-R. Lee, J.-H. Noh, H.-S. Kim and S.-J. Yook, “Comparison of resuspended road dust concentration for identifying optimum sampling position on a mobile laboratory vehicle," Aerosol Science and Technology, vol. 55, no. 11, pp. 1230-1238, 2021.
W. Songkitti, E. Wirojsakunchai, and T. Aroonsrisopon, "Identifying Factors that Affect Brake Wear PM Emissions during Real-World Test Conditions," SAE Technical Paper, Mar. 2022.
Nertrium. (2015). Choked Flow. [Online]. Available: https://neutrium.net/fluid-flow/choked-flow/
W. Songkitti, S. Pong-A-Mas, C. Plengsa-Ard, and E. Wirojsakunchai, “Influence of Factors on Non-Exhaust PM Emissions from Motorcycle,” Ladkrabang Engineering Journal, vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 46-53, Mar. 2022.
ISO, (2007). ISO 21994:2007. Passenger Cars — Stopping Distance at Straight-Line Braking with ABS — Open-Loop
D. R. Fitz, K. Bumiller, C. Bufalino, D. E. James, “Real-time PM10 emission rates from paved roads by measurement of concentrations in the vehicle’s wake using on-board sensors part 1. SCAMPER method characterization,” Atmospheric Environment, vol. 230, Jun. 2020.
Hagino, H., M. Oyama, and S. Sasaki, “Airborne brake wear particle emission due to braking and accelerating,” Wear, vol. 334-335, p. 44-48, 2015.